Descartes and skepticism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Descartes and skepticism - Essay Example The principle of certainty, which Descartes refers to as cogito is also explained. The researcher has also given a detailed explanation on why the project was very important for Rene Descartes to accomplish. Although it seems that the method of doubt has achieved a lot, it seems to raise doubts about everything that could possibly be doubted and this is not the case. Cartesian doubt remains a strong form of skepticism and the only thing Descartes did, was doubting what was possible for him to doubt. Keywords. Cogito, Cartesian Doubting, Skepticism, Descartes Introduction Descartes was born in La Haya, Touraine on the 31st of March 1596 (Wilson, 1983). His parents were Joachim Descartes and Jeanne Broachard. His Father worked in the army and was a noble man. His mother died when he was one year old. Descartes had a brother, Pierre and a sister known as Jeanne. Having been born into a clan of bourgeois, he was educated primarily at the leading Jesuit academy, where he received a ground ing foundation in traditional Aristotelian-scholastic philosophy. He later studied law at the University of Poitiers (Wilson, 1983). The chronology of his major works is as follows: 1628-1629: rules for the direction of the mind. 1634: the world scientific system. 1637: discourse on method, optics, geometry and meteorology (samples of which method would accomplish). 1641: meditations concerning first philosophy and objections and replies. 1644: principles of philosophy (concerned with explaining on all phenomena of nature). 1649: the passions of the soul. Concerned with the physiology of emotion and possibility of rational control of the passions (Wilson, 1983). Most the works of Rene Descartes were written in Holland and were philosophical and scientific. He conceived his scientific system as the successor and replacement of the great Aristotelian-scholastic philosophy that had dominated European thoughts for centuries. In his career, he strived to win approval and acceptance for h is views, especially among theological authorities. He dedicated the meditations to the theological faculty of the Sorbonne. Descartes died in February 1650 in Stockholm after Queen Christina of Sweden had persuaded him to go and grace her court. Rene Descartes is famously remembered for his Cartesian method that he used to refute skepticism (Wilson, 1983). Cartesian Doubting on Skepticism Skepticism is a doctrine in philosophy that holds that true and absolute knowledge or knowledge of a particular object is uncertain. In other words, that being certain in general or towards a particular object is not possible. The method that he uses to oppose skeptics is the background of his philosophy, which is known as the Cartesian doubting (Wilson, 1983). Descartes method of doubting used syllogism. A syllogism comprises of a major premise, particular premise, which is also known as minor premise and the conclusion. The rules of syllogism hold that if the premises are true the conclusion mus t be true, and when the premises are false the conclusion is definitely false. For example, Any thinking thing must exist. (Major premise). I think. (Minor premise). I therefore exist. (Conclusion). Before he could begin to construct the stage of his work, Descartes believed that he needed, once in his lifetime to get rid of all his former beliefs, since he was aware that any of them were false. He uses an analogy to explain this argument while at the same time introducing his method. The

Public law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Public law - Essay Example When a public authority acts in an incompatible manner with the Convention rights, it has to demonstrate that the primary legislation’s provisions had prevented it from doing so (Crone, 2013, p. 271). As such, Sections 3 and 4 of the HRA provide a better and more inclusive class of judicial responses to statutory infringements of the Convention, in comparison to what Section 6, in isolation, provides in common law cases. A declaration of incompatibility is not feasible in common law cases. On the other hand, when such infringements cannot be rectified under Section 3 of the HRA, the courts can pronounce a declaration of incompatibility under Section 4 of the HRA (Kavanagh, 2009, p. 71). Section 3 of the Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA) enjoins that primary and subordinate legislation have to be interpreted and implemented, to the extent feasible, in a manner that is compatible with the rights provided under the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). The interpretation of this Section is principally on the basis of the ruling in Ghaidan v Godin – Mendoza. During the pronouncement of their judgment, in this case, their Lordships employed the provisions of this Section to annul an interpretation provided by them to the Rent Act 1977. This decision had been given in Fitzpatrick v Sterling Housing Association (Smit, 2007, p. 294). Moreover, the employment of Section 3 of the HRA could compromise legal certainty for private individuals engaged in a legal relationship that is totally or partially subject to a statutory framework. For instance, in Ghaidan, the landlord, subsequent to their Lordships’ decision had been compelled to grant tenancy to the same gender partner of his deceased tenant. As pointed out by some critics, this decision had served to dilute the consensual aspect of the original relationship (Smit, 2011, p. 81). However, in the absence of explicit statutory preclusion, the courts will adopt a purposive approach and rule on the basis of

Internet Banking Essay Example for Free

Internet Banking Essay Therefore, since U. K. consumers have used to browsing and shopping online, there are factors that U. K. mobile carriers should pay attention. The factors are to find and collaborate with mobile commerce providers so that they can boost the M-Commerce traffic and thus, revenue. The potential of conducting mobile commerce in the U. K. also bases on the facts that the country has many mobile subscribers. According to International Telecommunication Union (2006), U. K. has 61 million of mobile customers as of January 2006. If 20% of the customers (15 million users) are active subscribers of M-commerce with average spending $100 per month. Therefore, the market for mobile commerce in the UK is $18 billion per year. The condition highlight that mobile commerce is attractive service that mobile service providers like Vodafone must develop by collaborating with merchants and content providers (cp) that build the mobile commerce applications. The development of m-commerce is also backed up by the recent development on 3G (third generation) mobile technology that gives opportunity for subscribers to have faster access to browse internet via mobile phones and conduct m-commerce transaction. British Telecom, for example, estimates that in 2002 they have about 150,000 customers of broadband services that is potential to be the active users of mobile commerce (Verdin, 2002) Recent progress and invention in mobile and wireless technologies has caused the shifting paradigm shift from desktop computers to mobile devices. Recently, it is usual to find consumers using their Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), smart phones, and notebooks that strengthen the facts that business has gone mobile so that the consumers can do all things over wireless gadgets the same with doing by desktop computer (Intel, 2004). The improvement in mobile devices capability also attracts customers to buy new phones and new customers segment that also target teenagers. This condition becomes issues for telecommunication companies and content providers to develop new killing applications besides voice communication that will increase the corporate revenue. The new application is data communication that comes in many forms. Concerning data communications, this paper has discussed several issues/challenges and opportunities in UK mobile telephone industry. To be specific, the point of discussion is about the development of mobile commerce (M-Commerce) that takes advantages of increasing number of mobile users and the development of computer technology. References American National Bank. (2001). Internet Banking Features Benefits. Retrieved December 13, 2007 from http://www. americannationalbank. com/i_features. cfm Arthur D. Little Int. Gmbh. (2001). Key Success Factors for M-Commerce. Presentation for Berlecon Research

Childhood Maltreatment and Diabetes Relationship

Childhood Maltreatment and Diabetes Relationship Study Rationale The primary goal of this study is to conduct an empirical investigation of the association between an early life stressor such as childhood maltreatment and subsequent diagnosis of Type II diabetes in adulthood. This study will specifically explore if a relationship exists between the type and severity of childhood maltreatment encountered and participants diabetes-related quality of life. To provide a context for the current study, background literature focusing on two dimensions that have received considerable attention in the psychological literature is first thoroughly reviewed: definition and effects of childhood maltreatment and the biopsychosocial aspect of Type II diabetes. The current studys purpose, hypotheses, method, and data analytic strategy will then be proposed. Background Information Childhood Maltreatment Childhood maltreatment refers to, any act or series of acts of commission or omission by a parent or other caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child (Centers for Disease Control [CDC], n.d., para. 1). In their report, Child Maltreatment Surveillance, Leeb, Paulozzo, Melanson, Simon, Arias (2007) defined acts of commission as deliberate and intentional use of words or actions that cause harm, potential harm, or threat of harm to a child. Examples of acts of commission include physical, sexual, and/or psychological abuse. Acts of omission, on the other hand, are the failure to provide for a childs basic physical, emotional, or educational needs or to protect a child from harm (Leeb et al., 2007). Thus, acts of omission include physical, emotional, medical, or educational neglect, the failure to supervise or insufficient supervision, and/or exposure to a violent environment. According to the most recent publication by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) on childhood maltreatment, an estimated 905,000 children were determined to be victims of abuse or neglect (USDHHS, 2006). Specifically, 64.2 percent of child victims experienced neglect, 16.0 percent were physically abused, 8.8 percent were sexually abused, and 6.6 percent were emotionally or psychologically maltreated. The report suggests that rates of victimization by maltreatment type have fluctuated only slightly during the past several years. The long-term consequences of child maltreatment are significant and include the risk of alterations of brain structure and function, sexual risk taking behaviors, eating disorders, suicidal intent and behavior, lower self-esteem, adjustment problems, internalizing problems (i.e. anxiety and depressive disorders), externalizing problems (i.e. personality disorders and substance abuse), adult trauma, continuation of intergenerational violence and/or neglect, and developmental and cognitive disabilities (Anda, Felitti, Bremner, Walker, Whitfield, Perry, Dube, Giles, 2006; Arata, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Bowers, OFarrill-Swails, 2005; Bardone-Cone, Maldonado, Crosby, Mitchell, Wonderlich, Joiner, Crow, Peterson, Klein, Grange, 2008; Johnson, Sheahan, Chard, 2003; Kaplow Widom, 2007; Kaslow, Okun, Young, Wyckoff, Thompson, Price, Bender, Twomey, Golding, Parker, 2002; Lewis, Jospitre, Griffing, Chu, Sage, Madry, Primm, 2006; Medrano, Hatch, Zule, Desmond, 2002; Smith, 1996; Sobsey, 2002; Taft, Marshall, Schumm, Panuzio, Holtzworth-Munroe, 2008). A consistent relationship between abuse history and poorer overall health has also been demonstrated in a stratified, epidemiological sample of both men and women within the United States (Cromer and Sachs-Ericsson, 2006). Childhood Maltreatment and Physical Health Problems A consistent dose-relationship between abuse history, poorer overall health, and sustained losses in health-related quality of life has been well established (Cromer Sachs-Ericsson, 2006; Golding, 1994; Corso, Edwards, Fange, Mercy, 2008). Childhood sexual abuse has been associated with physical complaints such as migraine, irritable bowel syndrome, fibromyalgia, and chronic pain (Goldberg, Pachas, Keith, 1999; Goodwin, Hoven, Murison, Hotopf, 2003; Ross, 2005; Walker, Keegan, Gardner, Sullivan, Bernstein, Katon, 1997). Furthermore, using data from the National Corbidity Study, a nationally representative general population study, Arnow (2004) found that abused children were likely to have pelvic and musculoskeletal pain as adults, and utilize health care services at a greater proportion in adulthood. However, a major limitation of these studies is exclusion of emotional and/or psychological abuse experienced in childhood. Additionally, results regarding the incidence of types o f childhood maltreatment and diabetes have been mixed. Diabetes Diabetes is a chronic disease characterized by the deficiency or resistance to insulin, a hormone needed to convert sugar, starches and other food into energy needed for daily living. As such, insulin deficiency compromises the body tissues access to essential nutrients for fuel or storage. According to the American Diabetes Association (ADA), there are 23.6 million children and adults in the United States, or 7.8% of the population, who have diabetes, many of which unaware that they have the disease (ADA, n.d., para. 2). Diabetes occurs in two primary forms. Type I diabetes is characterized by absolute deficiency and typically occurs before the age of 30. Type II diabetes, however, is typified by insulin resistance with varying degrees of deficiencies in the bodys ability to secrete insulin. Sedentary lifestyle and diet have been linked to the development of Type II diabetes. Other risk factors for this type of diabetes include obesity, pregnancy, metabolic syndrome, and various medications. Physiologic and emotional stress has also been thought to play a key role in the development of Type II diabetes specifically. Prolonged elevation of stress hormones, namely cortisol, glucagon, epinephrine, and growth hormone, increases blood glucose levels, which in turn places increased demands on the pancreas. Such stress ultimately leads to the inability of the pancreas to keep up with the bodys need for insulin and high levels of glucose and insulin circulate in the bloodstream, setting the stage for Type II diabetes (Diseases, 2006). Role of Stress in the Onset of Diabetes Animal Studies Researchers have found that both a history and presence of existing stressors play a significant role in the onset and course of diabetes. Through the use of animal studies, researchers have been able to prospectively test the influence of stress on both types of diabetes. For example, Lehman, Rodin, McEwen, and Brinton (1991) investigated whether an environmental challenge promoted the expression of diabetes in bio-breeding rats. Researchers introduced a triad of stressors to the animals over a 14-week period, including rotation of the cage, vibration, and restraint in individual containers. They found that the administration of these stressors repeatedly increased the likelihood of the rats developing Type I diabetes as indicated by elevated blood sugar levels (Lehman et al., 1991). One of the first observations that stress could contribute to the expression of Type II diabetes was made during metabolic studies of the native North African sand rat (psammonys obesus). Once fed with laboratory chow and allowed to become obese, the North African sand rat will eventually develop Type II diabetes in response to an environmental stressor (Surwit, Schenider, Feinglos, 1992). Notably, Mikat, Hackel, Cruz, and Lebowitz (1972) administered an esophageal intubation of saline in an effort to control the dietary intake of the sand rat. This tube feeding resulted in an alteration of glucose tolerance and precipitated the onset of Type II diabetes in these rats. Similar research was done on the genetically obese (ob/ob) mouse, which is used as a prototype of Type II diabetes in humans because of its pattern of obesity, hyperinsulinemia, hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, and glucose intolerance (Surwit, Feinglos, Livingston, Kuhn, McCubbin, 1984). To study the effects of env ironmental stress and sympathetic nervous system arousal on plasma glucose in ob/ob mice, Surwit et al. (1984) designed two experimental conditions. In the first condition, 15 ob/ob mice were shaken in their cage at a rate of 200 strokes per minute for five minutes. In the second condition, 16 ob/ob mice were injected with epinephrine bitartrate, a chemical whose effects mimic those of the stress response. Plasma glucose levels in mice from both conditions were found to be significantly elevated. The researchers concluded that environmental stress was partially responsible for the expression of the diabetic phenotype in this animal model of diabetes. Role of Stress in the Onset of Diabetes Human Studies Data gathered on the impact of life events on Types I diabetes in a human sample has yielded inconsistent results. An early study by Grant, Kyle, Teichman, and Mendels (1974) examined the relationship between the occurrence of life events and the course of illness in a group of 37 diabetic patients. Using Holmes and Rahes Schedule of Recent Events (SRE), a scale in which 43 significant recent life events are assigned a numeric value of life change units as a measurement of life stress, Grant et al. (1974) found that of the 26 participants who had a positive correlation between undesirable life events and illness, 24 had a positive correlation between undesirable events scores and diabetic condition. This data suggests that negative events were primarily responsible between life events and changes in diabetic condition since the inclusion of neutral and positive events did not increase the magnitude of the correlations. Despite the significant results, this study had a number of limit ations, including the utilization of a small sample size, difficulty in establishing reliable criteria for assessing subtle changes in the diabetic condition, lack of sufficient time to elapse between assessments for significant life changes to occur, and the lack of delineation of the types of diabetes studied (i.e. Type I vs. II). However, in a more recent meta-analysis, Cosgrove (2004) found no evidence to support the hypothesis that life events cause or precipitate Type I diabetes. Using an electronic and manual literature search of appropriate key words (namely, diabetes and depression, diabetes and depressive, diabetes and life events, diabetes and stress) in the literature up to July 2003, Cosgrove (2004) aimed to establish whether there might be a link between depression, stress, or life events and the onset of Type I diabetes. A total of nine papers were found from the electronic and manual search. It was concluded that when the number and severity of life events was compared to controls in all nine reviewed studies, no differences were detected in the diabetics (Cosgrove, 2004). Though data from small, older studies and large, randomized studies showed that early losses in childhood increase the risk of developing Type I diabetes, no evidence was found to support the hypothesis that life events cause o r precipitate this diagnosis. Meta-analyses with more recent studies have not been found studying the relationships between stressful life events in both types of diabetes. As such, it is unknown whether links have since been found by other researchers. More consistent evidence was found supporting the notion that stressful circumstances precipitate Type II diabetes. In their study of environmental stress on Type II diabetics, McCleskey, Lewis, and Woodruff (1978) measured glucagon and glucose levels on 25 patients who were undergoing elective surgery, a physical stressor. Ten samples were obtained during pre-operative, intra-operative, and post-operative periods for each patient. It was found that throughout the sampling period, diabetic patients had two times the amount of glucagon (a hormone produced by the pancreas that stimulates the increase of blood sugar levels) in their body compared to their non-diabetic counterparts (McCleskey, Lewis, Woodruff, 1978). This effect was also found in Pima Indians, who have an approximately 60% chance of eventually developing Type II diabetes, compared with 5% of the Caucasian population (Surwit, Schenider, Feinglos, 1992). The effects of a simple arithmetic task on blood glucose levels were studied in both Caucasian and Pima Indian samples. Surwit, McCubbin, Feinglos, Esposito-Del Puente, and Lillioja (1990) found that blood glucose was consistently higher during and following the stressful task in ten of 13 Pima Indians, concluding that altered glycemic responsivity to behavioral stressors anticipates the development of Type II diabetes in individuals who are genetically predisposed to the disease (Surwit et al., 1990). Results from The Hoorn Study further illustrated the effects of stress on Type II diabetes. Mooy, De Vries, Grootenhuis, Boutner, and Heine (2000) analyzed data from a large population-based survey of 2,262 adults in the Netherlands upon which the researchers were able to explore whether chronic stress is positively associated with the prevalence of Type II diabetes. Analysis of data confirmed their hypothesis; a high number of rather common major life events that are correlated with chronic psychological stress, such as death of a spouse or relocation of residence, were indeed found to correspond to a significantly higher percentage of undetected diabetes (Mooy et al., 2000). Because the study was conducted in the Netherlands on a Caucasian, middle-aged population, it is uncertain whether these findings are generalizable to other demographics in different geographic regions. Childhood Maltreatment and Diabetes Thus far, with the exception of one study, the research discussed has demonstrated a positive correlation between a variety of recent or current environmental stressors, such as anesthesia, surgery, cognitive tasks, death of a loved one, and other significant losses, and the onset of Type I and/or II diabetes in animals and human beings. However, the literature is somewhat limited as to the relationship between a past environmental stressor, namely childhood maltreatment, and Type II diabetes in adulthood. Numerous researchers examined the prevalence of medical problems in abused populations and have reported that diabetes is one of the most common health conditions among those who have experienced maltreatment. For example, using data drawn from the National Comorbidity Study conducted in the early 1990s, Sachs-Ericsson, Blazer, Plant, and Arnow (2005) examined the independent effects of childhood sexual and physical abuse on adult health status in a large community sample of 5,877 men and women. Sachs-Ericsson et al. (2005) found that childhood sexual and physical abuse was associated with the one-year prevalence of serious health problems for both men and women. Specifically, participants who experienced any form of childhood abuse were more likely to report having a medical condition, including AIDS, arthritis, asthma, bronchitis, cancer, diabetes, high blood pressure, kidney or liver disease, neurological problems, stroke, gastrointestinal disorders, or any other serious health pr oblem (Sachs-Ericsson et al., 2005). Though data from this epidemiological study likely represents the U.S. demographics, a number of limitations exist. Specifically, the researchers did not report the prevalence of each disorder endorsed and thus, the actual incidence of diabetes in the population sample is unknown. Furthermore, Sachs-Ericsson et. al (2005) did not look at additional forms of maltreatment, such as verbal abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect. Similarly, Walker, Gelfand, Katon, Koss, Von Korff, Bernstein, and Russo (1999) found a significant association between childhood maltreatment and adverse adult health outcomes. In particular, the researchers administered a survey to 1,225 women randomly selected from the membership of a large HMO in Washington State. Results indicated that women with childhood maltreatment histories were more likely to have an increased number of physician-coded ICD-9 diagnoses, grouped together as high blood pressure, diabetes, dermatitis, asthma, allergy, acne, and abnormal menstrual bleeding. Though the group of women in this study who reported threshold levels of sexual maltreatment had the poorest health outcomes, a major limitation of this study is the uncertainty as to whether additional forms of maltreatment were concomitantly experienced. Specifically, the authors do not establish whether sexual abuse solely was the cause of poorer health or is largely due to multiple forms of maltreatment in girls who were not properly protected in their early families. Moreover, Walker et al. (1999) do not differentiate between types of diabetes. Gender differences have been established in the association between physical abuse in childhood and overall health problems in adulthood. Analysis of data from 16,000 individuals interviewed in the National Violence Against Women Survey found that female abuse victims were at greater risk for health problems than their male counterparts (Thompson, Kingree, Desai, 2004). Furthermore, women with maltreatment history tend to have more distressing physical experiences, have an increased number of physician-coded diagnoses, and were more likely to engage in multiple health risk behaviors, including obesity a significant risk factor associated with Type II diabetes (Trickett, Putnam, Noll, 2005; Walker, Gelgand, Katon, Koss, Von Korff, Bernstein, Russo, 1999). Moreover, sexual assault history throughout ones lifespan was also associated with chronic disease (i.e. diabetes, arthritis, and physical disability) in a sample of women from Los Angeles (Golding, 1994). Conversely, in their sa mple of 680 primary care patients, Norman, Means-Christensen, Craske, Sherbourne, Roy-Byrne, and Stein (2006) found that the experience of trauma significantly increased the odds of arthritis and diabetes for men, while trauma was associated with increased odds for digestive disorders and cancer in women. Although the data suggests that childhood maltreatment is related to adverse health outcomes in adulthood, they do not address as to why associations differed by gender. Analyzing data from the Midlife Development in the United States Survey (MIDUS), Goodwin and Weisberg (2002) sought to determine the association between childhood emotional and physical abuse and the odds of self-reported diabetes among adults in the general population. Their results revealed that self-reported diabetes occurred in 4.8% of its representative sample of 3,032 adults aged 25-74 years. Childhood abuse was associated with significantly increased odds of self-reported diabetes, which persisted after adjusting for differences in socio-demographic characteristics and mental health status (Goodwin Weisberg, 2002). Moreover, individuals who specifically reported maternal emotional abuse and maternal physical abuse had significantly higher rates of diabetes (Goodwin Weisberg, 2002). Furthermore, data gathered from a sample of 130 patients (65 abused, 65 non-abused controls) drawn from an adult primary-care practice in a small, affluent, predominantly Caucasian community in northern New England revealed that patients with a history of victimization were more likely to report diabetes or endorse symptoms of this illness than non-abused participants (Kendall-Tackett Marshall, 1999). Specifically, four patients in the abused group reported diabetes, with none in the control group. Interestingly, those patients in the abused group did not have a significantly higher family history of diabetes than those in the non-abused group and a higher percentage of patients in the abused group reported having three of more symptoms than did those in the control group. Kendall-Tackett and Marshall (1999) assert that although only four people identified themselves as having diabetes, this number should be interpreted in the broader context of incidence of diabetes in the general population. Nonetheless, this finding could have been due to chance and many of the symptoms endorsed could have been related to other diseases (Kendall-Tackett Marshall, 1999). Additional limitations include the failure to differentiate between the types of abuse endured and the use of a non-empirically validated measure to gather data. Furthermore, the researchers did not specify which type of diabetes the participants were diagnosed with and did not indicate the severity of the disease. Data from the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study (ACE), however, found alternative results. Researchers Felliti, Anda, Nordenberg, Williamson, Spitz, Edwards, Koss, and Marks (1998) mailed questionnaires about adverse childhood experiences to 9,508 adults who had completed a standardized medical evaluation at a large HMO in California. It was found that abuse and other types of household dysfunction were significantly related to the number of disease conditions, with the exception of diabetes. Specifically, when those who had experienced multiple forms of childhood maltreatment were compared to those with no experiences, the odds-ratio for the presence of diabetes was a non-significant 1.6 (Felliti et al., 1998). The researchers believe that their estimates of the long-term relationship between adverse childhood experiences and adult health are conservative. Specifically, it is likely that, consistent with well-documented longitudinal follow-up studies, that reports of childhood abu se were underestimated due to the premature mortality in persons with multiple adverse childhood exposures (Felliti et al., 1998). Similarly, in a sample of 1,359 community-dwelling men and women aged 50 years or older, Stein and Barrett-Connor (2000) found no relationship between sexual assault history in participants lifetime and reported rates of diabetes. Rather, a history of sexual assault was associated with an increased risk of arthritis and breast cancer in women and thyroid disease in men (Stein Barrett-Connor, 2000). In this study, the researchers posit that the possibility of response bias is a major limitation. Namely, Stein and Barrett-Connor (2000) consider the likelihood that previously assaulted respondents have a greater tendency to visit doctors, leading to the increased opportunities for health conditions to be detected. Additional limitations include the lack of consideration for other types of abuse encountered in childhood. The Link between Childhood Maltreatment and Diabetes The above findings provide support for the hypothesis that childhood maltreatment may be associated with increased likelihood of the diagnosis of a medical condition, with the inclusion of diabetes in some studies. An essential question posed by this observation is by what mechanisms are adverse childhood experiences linked to health risk behaviors and adult diseases? A number of researchers have found that psychological stress, in particular, has been associated with the onset of Type II diabetes. This impact of stress on the etiology and course of Type II diabetes can be considered via the metabolic pathways by means of obesity and/or activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, the gene-environment interaction, and the correlation of coping with diabetes and stressors. The stress response is a physiological coping response that involves the HPA axis, the sympathetic nervous system, the neurotransmitter system, and then immune system. There is growing evidence that victims of various forms of abuse and stressors often experience biological changes, particularly in the neuroendocrine system implicated in the stress response, as well as the brain (Glaser, 2000; Goenjian, Pynoos, Steinberg, Endres, Abraham, Geffner, Fairbanks, 2003; King, Mandansky, King, Fletcher, Brewer, 2001; McEwen, 2000). The HPA axis is the primary mechanism studied in the literature on the neurobiology of stress and is estimated through the non-invasive measurement of cortisol in saliva samples. During psychological stress, cortisol is elevated beyond normal levels in response to adrenocorticotropic hormone from the pituitary, mobilizing energy stores, and facilitating behavioral responses to threat (Diseases, 2006). In the presence of prolonged stress, especially in which the individual has difficulty coping, this physiological response may occur to an atypical extent and prove harmful. Dienstbier (1989) asserts that prolonged and/or extreme stress can create a vicious cycle of pathology, as individuals with a history of abuse may become even more vulnerable in the face of new victimization because they become threat-sensitized, resulting in either an over- or under-reaction of the HPA system to new stressors. As Vaillancourt, Duku, Decatanzaro, Macmillan, Muir, and Schmidt (2008) cite, this process is best illustrated by Cicchetti and Rogoschs (2001) study of maltreated children attending a summer day camp. These authors found that in comparison to non-abused children, children who had been both sexually and physically abused, in addition to emotionally maltreated or neglected, exhibited higher morning cortisol levels, whereas a subgroup of children who had only been physically abused exhibited lower levels. Recent evidence suggests that increased cortisol concentrations may contribute to the prevalence of metabolic syndromes, such as Type II diabetes. For example, in their assessment of 190 Type II diabetic patients who volunteered from a population study of 12,430 in suburban Germany, Oltmanns, Dodt, Schultes, Raspe, Schweiger, Born, Fehm, and Peters (2006), sought to assess the relationship between diabetes-associated metabolic disturbances and cortisol concentrations in patients with Type II diabetes. The target population comprised of men and women born between 1939 and 1958 who completed a postal questionnaire about their health status. Results demonstrated that in patients with Type II diabetes, those with the highest cortisol profiles had higher glucose levels and blood pressures (Oltmanns et al., 2006). Their findings suggest that HPA axis activity may play a role in the development of Type II diabetes-associated metabolic disturbances. Cartmell (2006) proposes a model by which this may occur. Namely, high levels of cortisol decreases metabolism of glucose and increase mobilization and metabolism of fats. This decreased metabolism of glucose contributes to increased blood glucose levels. Furthermore, increased blood fat levels contribute to insulin resistance. This increase level of blood glucose and fats are characteristic symptoms of diabetes (Cartmell, 2006). Researchers Chiodini, Adda, Scillitani, Colleti, Morelli, Di Lembo, Epaminonda, Masserini, Beck-Peccoz, Orsi, Ambrosi, and Arosio (2007) extended the literature by studying HPA axis secretion of cortisol and chronic diabetic complications. An evaluation was conducted on HPA activity in a sample of 117 Type II diabetic patients with and without chronic complications and in a sample of 53 non-diabetic patients at a hospital in Italy. Chiodini et al. (2007) found that in diabetic subjects without chronic complications, HPA axis activity was comparable with that of non-diabetic patients, whereas in diabetic subjects with chronic complications, cortisol level was increased in respect to both diabetic subjects and control subjects. Though the design of their study did not look for a cause-effect relationship, Chiodini et al. (2007) purport that higher levels of cortisol, either due to a constitutive HPA axis activation or secondary to a chronic stress condition, may predispose an individua l to the development of chronic diabetic complications. Type II diabetes is now a well-recognized syndrome characteristic of hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, obesity, dyslipidemia, and hypertension (Sridhar Madhu, 2001). One theory that purports the biological plausibility of a stress-diabetes association has been formulated by Swiss researcher, Dr. Per Bjà ¶rntorp. Bjà ¶rntorp (1997) postulated that stress could be responsible for sympathetic nervous system activation, hormone abnormalities, and obesity. This theory states that perceived psychological stress with a defeatist or helplessness reaction leads to an activation of the HPA axis. This in turn results in endocrine abnormalities, including increased cortisol and decreased sex steroid levels that disrupt the actions of insulin. In addition, this hormonal imbalance causes visceral adiposity, which plays an important role in diabetes and cardiovascular disease by contributing to the development of insulin resistance (Cartmell, 2006). Researchers of The Hoorn Study described above tested Bjà ¶rntorps theory and found only partial support (Mooy et al., 2000). Specifically, the accumulation of visceral fat did not seem to be the major mediating factor between stress and diabetes and fasting insulin concentration, which is an approximation of insulin resistance, was not higher in the individuals in their sample who had experienced more stressful events. Study Significance The significance of this study is its potential to provide medical practitioners with information regarding the impact of past psychosocial factors, such as childhood maltreatment, on the current physical health of Type II diabetics. Diabetes and its complications affect a significant portion of the United States population and has become the fifth leading cause of death in the country (Florida Department of Health, 2008). As researchers continue to look for the cause(s) of diabetes and methods to treat, prevent, or cure the disorder, it is vital that practitioners take a holistic and comprehensive approach to assessing the diabetics life. As long as abuse and other potentially damaging experiences in childhood contribute to the development of risk factors, then these childhood exposures should be recognized as the basic causes of morbidity and mortality in adult life (Felliti et al., 1998). Major limitations of past literature include lack of specificity of type of diabetes, family history, and self-reported diabetes without data on physiological measures. In addition to replication, future studies should include detailed studies on diabetes-type, a ruling-out of serious medical conditions that could potentially act as confounds, and identify maltreatment subtypes experienced. This study aims to uncover a relationship between childhood maltreatment and adult physical health, namely with Type II diabetes, so as to assist with screening and intervention. If doctors caring for adults who suffer from a medical condition associated with diabetes are unaware of this relationship, they will neither obtain early maltreatment history nor make appropriate patient referrals leading to higher health care utilization and poorer outcomes (Arnow, 2004; Springer, Sheridan, Kuo, Carnes, 2003). Research Questions and Hypotheses This study aims to answer the following questions: Is a history of childhood maltreatment associated with diabetes-related quality of life? If so, is a decrease in diabetes-related quality of life associated with an increase in the types of childhood maltreatment experienced? It is hypothesized that the more types of abuse endured during childhood (i.e. physical, emotional, and/or sexual, neglect, and/or the witnessing of family violence), the more chronic and severe an individuals diabetes will be and the greater impact of their illness on their reported quality of life. Method Participants Data will be collected from individuals with Type II diabetes, recruited from psychiatric practices located in Plant City and Tampa, Florida. Participants will be recruited from these sites due to likelihood that patients receiving psychiatric care have a history of childhood maltreatment. Participants will be included in the study if they are aged 40 and older, as non-insulin dependent diabetes appears after this age. Participants will be excluded fro

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The energy challenges in the last few decades and the higher environmental issues around the globe have been pushing many countries to provide incentives for promoting renewable energy source exploitation so as to replace or minimize the use of fossil fuels which emit pollutants and large amount of carbon dioxide. Renewable energy is a source of energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, geothermal heat and biomass. These are naturally replenished when used [1]. Large shares of renewable electricity generation are a promising possibility to address global warming and the rising scarcity of hydrocarbon fuels [2]. Solar energy is a well-known proven technology, because of its availability and it does not have negative effects on the environment compared to other conventional energy such as the use of fossil fuel which gradually increases the earth average temperature and pollution. Solar energy is also one of the most available forms of energy on the earth’s surface. The earth’s surface receives a daily solar dose of 10E+8 kWh, which is equiva...

The Prisoner. A Fragment by Emily Bronte Essay -- Literary Analysis

At the start of the nineteenth century, religion and science coexisted as one. The idea behind the creation of man and nature was seen as the work of God, thus the issue of religion and science were one in the same. As the Victorian era progressed, there was an emergence of scientific thinkers that began to question the creation and miracles of God, which in turn led to turmoil within the Victorian society. What Victorian society had was a constant clashing of ideals between the emerging science group and the religious believers. People did not care to listen to each other’s beliefs, which led to an overall lack of mutual respect among the groups. It is through Emily Bronte’s The Prisoner. A Fragment that the tensions based on religion can be seen through the male and female characters who represent the clashing groups in Victorian society. Religious believers in the Victorian society had amazing fervor for the word of God and believed that everything that occurred in life came from the hands of God. A good majority of the works written during the Victorian era expressed a belief that through the endurance of pain and suffering on Earth, the individual will be forever rewarded in Heaven. The Prisoner. A Fragment, by Emily Bronte is a clear demonstration of this belief as a heroic female prisoner demonstrates hope that her creator will save her after she endures her unjust punishment. The speaker in this work is a man visiting the prison, which is located in his father’s castle. He narrates the story looking back on his visit to the prison. He makes the audience aware that he never really cared nor did he pay attention to the lives that were slowly coming to an end in the crypts. He makes a comment to the jailor and is given a re... ...hinking along with the fall of the Church of England. Emily Bronte, through her male and female characters in A Prisoner. A Fragment ,is demonstrating the struggle and the feuding that took place between the religious and anti-religious groups that began to emerge during this time. Not only does she represent these two groups, she also makes strong comment on women. It is clear that Bronte is breaking the stereotype of the woman by using a strong female character to demonstrate their power, as well as their ability to lead and be heroes in a social, religious, and political movement that was the center of so much controversy during this era. Works Cited Christ, Carol T., Catherine Robson, Stephen Greenblatt, and M. H. Abrams. The Prisoner. A Fragment. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Vol. E. New York, NY: W.W. Norton &, 2006. 1315-316. Print.

Movie Review on the movie entitled “Hook” Essay

Peter has completely forgotten his earlier incarnation, which is probably just as well for his career. Not many high rollers would entrust the fate of an unfriendly corporate takeover to a fellow who has a pal named Tinkerbell and as a mortal enemy a sword-buckled pirate with a hook for a hand. Vincent Canby, 1991 Steven Spielberg’s movie entitled â€Å"Hook† was Peter Pan’s future life. The director showed the life of Peter Pan after his â€Å"ended battle† with his mortal enemy, Captain Hook. Peter married Wendy’s grand daughter but still have a heart towards Wendy. After a long period of time without seeing each other, Peter and Wendy reunited again to reminisce the past but Peter did not think of Captain Hook’s new way of revenge – to capture his children as a favor to his presence in the Never Land. According to Hal Hinson, â€Å"Hook† is the story of Banning’s redemption; it’s an extravagant fable about how Banning recovers his past as Peter Pan, saving himself and his family by (please excuse the psychobabble) reclaiming his inner child. It’s a ’90s movie to the bone, yet another moral lesson for our time. It’s also great fun: big, splashy, energetic, one-size-fits-all Hollywood entertainment. There are different symbolisms, images, and ironies that emerged and developed all throughout the movie. Spielberg’s way of depicting the adult character of Peter Pan showed his strengths as a hero and weaknesses as a person. Tinkerbelle’s loyal character towards Peter Pan became the reason how Peter came back to his home. Wendy has grown old but she feels every situation that happens when it comes to the presence of Hook and other people from Peter’s world. Wendy, Tinkerbelle, and Peter Pan are all depiction of fictional reality that exists in an ideal and real world. The same old room where Wendy and Peter met still exists in this movie. It means that there is still something to happen beneath the big window of this room. Here is where Peter’s children capture and goes to the Never Land. Peter already forgot how to fly, which seemed to be his greatest armor against his enemies. However, through Tinkerbelle’s help, he soon recognizes his life during his childhood that led him to restore his power ad ability to fly. This movie also showed the real feelings of Tinkerbelle towards Peter Pan. She loved him so dearly that is why she is still loyal to Peter from his younger years up to the moment they meet again. For me, it shows that Peter Pain is the ideal man to become a partner of every woman. However, he is not a man of perfection because he could not able to raise his children with emotional attachment. He thinks that by giving them a good life will give him the credit of being a good provider. Peter’s being too busy with his work tends to for get his children’s emotional needs. This scenario shows the battle between being human and extra human being. When Peter came to Never Land, the division of children and adults was depicted. Children’s side is known to be the good ones while the adults’ side is the opposite – the bad ones. Despite of the fact that children in this movie know how to defend themselves, they have no violent armors within them during the time of battle. It shows that the director is sensitive to the limitation of its audiences, which mostly are children. There are two significant sports that were seen in the movie – basketball is the traditional game in Never Land while baseball emerged to become the popular game in the modern period. However, the director showed that baseball was played by the pirates, which means that there is an incorporation of new tradition to the old tradition to justify the difference of the two periods. The symbolisms of watch, hook, â€Å"play-doh† food, and the baseball and basketball ball played an important role to the characters’ establishment as well as the story’s resolution. The watch symbolizes time. The part where Captain Hook destroyed the watches and clock with the help of Peter’s son illustrated the impeding of time in their society. I have seen the reason why Peter’s son also destroyed the clocks is because of his father’s lack of time towards him, her mother, and his sister. It does not really that there is a crocodile, which Hook’s worst enemy aside from Peter Pan but a justification of devastate the transformation of age. At the end of the movie, Captain Hook was seen to be old like Peter Pan. His wig covers his white hair as a representation of old age. Steven Spielberg’s point of view to describe Peter Pan’s adulthood and the concept of being old wanted to convey that everyone gets old and there is no escape with that. Only the memory will obtain childhood through reminiscence of the past. The hook symbolizes strength and weaknesses in both occurrences. According to the Facts of Piracy, a pirate who lost one of his body parts whether a finger, a hand, a foot, an eye, or a limb means that he is already incapable of doing things. This shows Captain Hook is incapable of doing things around him. It means that he is not a reliable and powerful master at all, which is an irony of his character where everyone treats him as a king of all the pirates. It was seen that despite of power that lies within his men, he is a man of nowhere. He is nothing as what a true pirate depicts. That is why every time Hook and Peter Pan take their battle, Hook always kneels unto Peter’s feet not to kill him for he is nothing but an abusive and injustice pirate of his period. Because of this, Captain Hook’s hook was his only armor to hide his incapability and immoral personification of king and master of all pirates in the Never Land. The â€Å"play-doh† food that was seen in the part when Peter and the children of his community are eating their colorful food symbolizes childhood. Robin Williams as Peter Pan showed his life during his childhood when there is no problem, pain, and sorrow – only happiness, simple happiness that represents the Never land’s simple way of living. The baseball and basketball ball signifies circle of life. Peter’s son always played this ball not only because it was his favorite game but it also represents the wheel of survival and living. There are ups and downs, failure and success, happiness and sadness, and discontentment and contentment. All these experiences mould us to become better individuals like Spielberg has conveyed in his movie. It means that life is like a ball in whether situation it may be – we can always feel ups and downs in rounded tops of life. Marjorie Baumgarten stated that Hook breaks the cardinal rule of J.M. Barrie’s timeless fantasy — it grows up. It is true in literal sense because Spielberg made his main characters Hook and Peter Pan grow old. However, he had justified all his thoughts and arguments as well as the reasons why he showed Peter Pan adult life. It seems that it is a depiction of social reality that everyone needs to understand. It is also good enough to show the children audiences that no person lived in young forever for there is not such thing as this concept. Despite of the fact that this movie is a fiction, Spielberg showed that literature is the mirror of the society that everyone needs to live according to the rule of life. Spielberg showed what he wanted to convey in his movie. It is a simple justification of age transformation that can happen to Peter Pan once he grows old. Spielberg did not insist of impose that this is the truth behind Peter Pan’s future but an option or choice to look after if we think of the probable life of Peter Pan once he became a mortal being. In terms of effects, costumes, setting, and characters, Spielberg established the scenarios into a better situation to show the true meaning and essence of Peter Pan’s personality and life after breaking his immortal being. The whole movie tackles one thing – Peter Pan’s existence in reality and his depiction of life as a mortal character. There are some flaws that exist but they are not really significant to the development of the character and the resolution. It shows that this movie is not perfect but it has established the important things and arguments that are needed to be discussed. As a whole, the movie is good in terms of technicalities and the director’s justification to his claim but in terms of breaking the traditional perspective towards Peter Pan immortal being is somehow hard to accept because many of us already live in a realization that Peter Pan does not transform into a complex and unfamiliar person. Works Cited Hinson, Hal. 11 December 1991. ‘Hook.’ â€Å"Washington Post.† 27 February 2008. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/videos/hookpghinson_a0a725.htm Canby, Vincent. 11 December 1991. Hook (1991): Review/Film; Peter as a Middle-Aged Master of the Universe. â€Å"New York Times.† 27 February 2008. http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/review?_r=2&res=9D0CEEDD133EF932A25751C1A967958260&oref=slogin&oref=login Baumgarten, Marjorie. 13 December 1991. Hook. â€Å"Austin Chronicles.† 27 February 2008. http://www.austinchronicle.com/gyrobase/Calendar/Film?Film=oid%3a139216 WilczyÅ„ski, Krzysztof. (2008). Facts on Piracy. 27 February 2008. http://www.piratesinfo.com/detail/detail.php?article_id=57